Psychoanalytic film theory

Sigmund Freud: theory of "the self"

Sigmund Freud is known for being one of the first people to discuss the significance of the unconscious mind on an individuals behaviours, desires and motivations. He believed in three levels of conscious known as the unconscious, preconscious and conscious. The unconscious refers to the things that we are unaware of all of the time, the preconscious is similar in the way that it refers to information that you are unaware of but the difference here is that this information can be recalled and the conscious mind is your current state of awareness.

It may be easier to visualise Freud's theory of self in the form of the angel v devil debate that is often seen in cartoons. When an individual is faced with making a decision they are shown as having an angel on their left side and a devil on their right side who are influencing the individual's ability to make a logical decision. This model shares many similarities with Freud's theory of personality which can be broken down in to three parts; the id, ego and superego.  The Id is the first to develop, followed by the ego and the super ego is the last of the parts to develop. 

Id

The Id is the biological component of the brain which is from birth. Often seen as more dominant than the superego, it is responsible for our natural instincts and the desires and urges that we often repress.  It responds immediately to our natural human instincts. A new born baby is all Id as they have not developed the other two component that form the personality and explains why babies cry when they are hungry because they need instant gratification for their desires. 

Ego

The ego is responsible for dealing with reality. The ego is developed from the Id and distinguishes an acceptable projection of this on the world from the desires of the individual.   This is commonly referred to as the reality principle. The reality principle is responsible for weighing the benefits and disadvantages of a given decision. The impulses of the Id can be controlled by a process known as "delayed gratification", meaning that the ego will allow the behaviour but only in the appropriate time or place. The ego functions in all three components of the brain, conscious, preconscious and subconscious. 

Superego

The superego is the last component of the personality to develop. It is internalised from behaviours we learn from the people around us, most commonly learnt from our parents and the world around us. It is the moral standards we acquire as a reflection of the society we have grown up in and creates our sense of right and wrong. Freud argues that this begins around the age of 5. 

• Constant battle in the psyche between the Superego and the Id 

• the superego is the part of our brain responsible for criticism 

• Freud believed that (dreams are) the royal road to the unconscious and that they contained important clues into the human psyche (Weiter, 2004: 195), his research included questions patients on their dream experiences and using their descriptions as a means of uncovering their "true" motivations and perceptions on the world 

• Film operates on much the same principle...film speaks directly to the unconscious, the language of dreams is one that is not an abstract form of communication such as narrative, but is one that is filled with images they carry hidden meanings on a latent level. (Kluge, 1999) 
• Id - instincts 
• Ego - reality 
• Superego - morality 

• The nature that is film can be, to a degree, deconstructed in order to unveil a universal understanding of our thoughts and behaviours that contribute towards our enjoyment of the film. as it acts as a release mechanism of these id induced impulses 

• Freudian Analysis - Id the most primitive drive, concerned only with fulfilling pleasure, Has sometimes been referred to as the irrational and emotional part of the mind. It is often regarded as being selfish, because it's concerned only with its own self-satisfaction. Babies and young children are often used as examples because they're usually driven by the pleasure and instant gratification principles. Key word - want

• Ego - based on the reality principle. The ego is capable of understanding that one's own desires may vary for people around (reality), and is willing to make this consideration. The ego tries to meet the basic needs of the id but also takes into account the real world. The ego understands that actions have effects, whether positive or negative, and tries to balance out thinking before carrying out decisions/actions. Key word - balance 

• Superego - based on moral principles instilled by rearing and moral/ethical restraints placed upon by caregivers. The superego encompasses an individual's ideals, goals and conscience as well as society's. The superego is concerned with what others will think, and stands in opposition to the Id. The superego acts to perfect and civilise our behaviour. Key words - morals, compromise 

Freud Application: Emperor's New Groove

Id: The Id in this clip is represented by the devil as he is symbolic of Kronk's desires and urges before they are filtered by the more logical parts of the brain that are responsible for implementing our morality otherwise known as the superego. The Id needs instant gratification and tries to come up with reasons for acting upon impulse. 

Superego: The superego is represented by the angel on Kronk's shoulder and is symbolic of the 'best' version of an individual. The superego is based around your idea of right and wrong to both society and yourself therefore this is usually the most logical - 'voice of reason'. In this clip the angel Kronk is trying to reason with the Id to act on Kronk's best interests but struggles to suppress the need for instant gratification that the Id requires. The Id and Superego are often in a constant battle between right and wrong which makes it difficult to decide which one is the best decision. 

Ego: The ego is represented by Kronk. His placement in the middle of the shot suggests that he is a mediator between the Id and the Superego and is mainly responsible for making decisions because the Ego appears bigger than both the Id and Superego which is representative of their significance in decision making. Ultimately the Ego decides what choice should be made by weighing up both sides equally and coming up with a realistic compromise. The ego is also present in all three parts of the brain which again reinforces the fact that the ego is the main focus in decision making and that's why in the clip the character Kronk appears significantly larger than the other two.

Contextual Studies: French New Wave Essay

Examine the key techniques of  Jean-Luc Godard and their impact on the French New Wave  

The French New Wave, also commonly known as the Nouvelle Vague, refers to the pivotal movement that reinvented cinema. France in the late 50’s and 60’s was a truly exhilarating time for filmmakers and audiences alike, with the rejection of traditional film practises being the ideal foundation for what would be become an era of experimentation in film. It’s a time where France is liberated, Nazi censorship is no longer a burden and audiences can enjoy foreign cinema once more. Before the emergence of the New Wave, French cinema was struggling for reception in comparison with its competitors at the time, Italian and Japanese cinema. Neupert (2007) refers to this in his text History of the French New Wave by simply noting that “the commercial French cinema was regularly condemned in the popular press as teetering, gasping and even suffering from hardening of the arteries.” The New Wave filmmakers rejected the practise of studio production and can be defined for their use of jump cuts, handheld cameras, filming in real locations with an improvised script, characters speaking directly to the camera often wearing their own clothes and a small crew. The focus here for the new wave filmmakers was on the way in which the story is told rather than the substance of the story itself; they wanted to redefine film form. Therefore, capturing a sense of realism in capturing off guard moments and throwing the audience out of the film with the adaption of these experimental features allows them to pose questions about what they are viewing rather than simply being absorbed in the plot. In this essay I will be discussing how the films of Jean-Luc Godard demonstrate key techniques that impacted the French New Wave and earnt him the title of Auteur. The three texts that I have chosen to explore this are A Bout de Souffle (1960), Pierrot Le Fou (1965) and Alphaville (1965).  

A Bout de Souffle (1960) starring Jean Belmondo and Jean Seberg is Godard’s first feature film and considered to be the most influential/most defining film to come out of the Nouvelle Vague. Many of the French New Wave directors were inspired by Hollywood mainstream cinema directors such as Alfred Hitchcock and Orson Welles and this was something that Godard certainly adopted for A Bout de Souffle; his own take on the classic film noir.  The film follows Michel (Belmondo), the stereotypical suave bad guy, who’s journey we follow through the streets of Paris as he struggles to escape his life of crime and a love affair condemned to fail. Patricia (Seberg), the femme fatale of the film, becomes Michel’s refuge as he is now a wanted criminal and the authorities are trying to locate him.  

The opening of A Bout de Souffle is composed of an extreme close-up of a man reading a newspaper “wearing a baggy, crumpled suit with hat cocked and fag in mouth, Michel Poiccard seems almost American”. Wiegand (2012) states that this use of extreme close up to open the film "captures the New Wave's revolt against traditional credits sequence" by creating a direct contrast to the common conventions of mainstream cinema. Michel’s character is symbolic of Godard’s admiration for the Hollywood greats with his undoubtable physical resemblance to the iconic American actor Humphrey Bogart, who later in the film we see Michel admiring  a photo of Bogart outside of a cinema which is followed by an extreme close-up of the Bogart picture from Michel’s perspective and then an extreme close-up of Michael looking at the picture in awe as he takes a drag on his cigarette as though he is imitating Bogart. The shots that follow our introduction of Michel inform the audience of the role in which he will take in the plot as we observe him and his accomplice working together so that Michel can steal a car and make his getaway to Paris. Through this scene alone Godard establishes the film as a sort of film noir however as the plot develops it becomes clear that the way in which the story is told is intended to make the viewer challenge everything that they believe defines the art of filmmaking through the use of techniques such as the jump cut which impact the continuity element of the film. 

Jump cuts are used to give the film a jagged appearance, making the film cut from scene to scene often with large amounts of time missing. An example of this is in the scene that follows Michel after he has stolen the car and is driving to Paris. The scene opens with an establishing shot of a car driving down a long road surrounded by trees and countryside, then a close-up of Michel driving the car, he reaches to turn on the car radio followed by a cutaway shot of the view out of the car window. It is a clear that time has passed between these two shots taking place because the audio playing from the car radio does not match that of the audio we hear when looking out of the window and because the camera does not pan towards this shot it does not follow the rules of continuity.  

Godard’s documentary style of filming reinforces a sense of realism, he often fed actors lines from behind the camera or told them to improvise speech was often dubbed due to the camera being too loud or unwanted background noise. The camera almost acts as a visualisation of the characters with the use of jump cuts and cutaways often being used when Michel is the centre of the plot to highlight his chaotic and disjointed nature which could be argued as the cause of his demise. An interesting element of A Bout de Souffle is the feature of Godard as an actor, though be it a small part, was a breakthrough for cinema as it blurred the lines of roles such as director, producer, editor, actor and allowed Godard to have a physical effect on the plot. This was considered uncommon in the standard practice of filmmaking and reinforced the idea that Godard should be referred to as an “Auteur” rather than simply a director. Neupert notes that this “emphasises the genius of the director and posits an inseparability of director and camera” therefore making them synonymous. 

Godard’s 1965 film Alphaville is set in a dystopian society where all forms of emotional expression are forbidden; love and freedom of thought are unheard of and individuals live devoid of conscience. Alpha 60, a super computer, is in complete control of all citizens in Alphaville and ensures that they conform to the strict ideals of society or they will be executed.  

Perhaps the film’s most shocking scene is the “swimming pool scene” where we are introduced to the punishment for failure to conform to Alpha 60. A man is being condemned for showing visable emotion when his wife passed away, a completely human reaction to a considerably traumatising event however within the realms of the futuristic society of Alphaville this is viewed as behaving illogically which we have learnt by this point is punishable by death. Within this scene the juxtaposition of the images of women in bathing suits swimming with the act of killing an “innocent” individual is an unusual contrast and isn’t indicative of what is actually taking place. The audience do not directly see anything more than shooting, the implication of them being drowned as part of the ceremonial process is subjective to what the viewer takes from the scene and its significance to the plot. In relation to the sci-fi genre this scene perhaps may not be considered unusual as the odd and unconventional are often embraced as a common convention of the genre in an attempt to create something which evokes a feeling of distance between the viewer and characters.  

The juxtaposition of tones is also illustrated through the use of sound, which is arguably what makes Alphaville one of the most compelling texts of Godard’s work within the Nouvelle Vague. The use of non-diegetic sound in scenes including action or violence are representative of Godard’s use of inventive influence on the new wave cinema. This can be seen in the scene where Detective Caution is fighting in his hotel room a cheerful classical song is played which makes the violence of the scene seem more lighthearted and takes the focus away from this and places more interest on the reasons behind this creative choice and any comments that Godard may be insinuating about mainstream cinema.  

It can also be argued that Godard is successful in presenting Paris as a “horrific, depersonalised city of the future” through his use of location alone. Shooting on the streets of Paris gives the film a sense of verisimilitude because it allows the viewer to connect with the concept behind the city of Alphaville that the past and future are irrelevant and that we should only be living in the present. This is achieved by choosing a location which audiences can relate to in projections of their own future rather than something which is so absurd that it doesn’t resonate with the viewer. The concept of verisimilitude is a key characteristic of the Godard aesthetic and makes the film recognisable as an object of Godard’s work. Wiegand (2012) refers to Alphaville in his text French New Wave and argues that “it’s perhaps best not to concern yourself with the plot but instead savour the film’s incidental delights” which supports the idea that the work of Godard should be viewed as a work of art with a focus on storytelling rather than the plot progression.  

The third text, Pierrot le Fou (1965) is equally as significant as A Bout de Souffle and Alphaville in the timeline of Godard films created with the New Wave. Viewed by many as a “fond farewell to the first part of his career, a last madcap romantic escapade before engaging with more serious concerns.” At this point in Godard’s career as film director he has well established his distinctive visual style; sharp contrasts in colours, jump cuts, confusing/jumpy storytelling and perhaps the most notable in Pierrot le Fou is the breaking of the fourth wall. 

Similarly, in Godard’s first feature film Breathless, the story follows a couple who are fleeing from reality with hopes of finding purpose and reason beyond their existence. The lovers in the plot of Pierrot le Fou take the form of Ferdinand and Marianne. The film makes many references to literature and poetry often having characters recite existential quotes that Godard is proposing to the viewer about their perceptions of the world around them. Marianne says “that’s what makes me sad, life is different from books. I wish it were the same, clear, logical, organised.” This is representative of her detachment from reality as she cannot distinguish the lines between a work of fiction and life therefore suggesting she is seeking something which is unattainable as is it does not even exist.  

Pierrot le Fou’s jumpy and confusing plot is considered off-putting for many who are not familiar with the Godard aesthetic though this is what creates emphasis on the place that poetry and literature play take in Godard’s personal life and how it informs his responses to his own reality. This also refers back to the idea that Godard’s intention is to provoke intellectual conversation rather than for the viewer to be absorbed in an engrossing and chronological plot as the New Wave were about creating films that were entirely unique to reinvigorate the somewhat dull films that French cinema were producing before the New Wave.  This idea of making the audience active within the plot is best demonstrated through a convention known as breaking the fourth wall. Characters ask questions directly to the camera or even look directly in to the camera when reciting monologues which breaks the barrier between audience and plot and involves the audience as a part of the storytelling.  

Overall, the three texts by Jean-Luc Godard clearly illustrate the work of a director who above all doesn’t fear failure. The breaking of many major conventions of the mainstream are achieved through establishing an innovative and creative style of filmmaking whilst remaining a large amount of relevance as a director within the industry. A Bout de Souffle (1960), Alphaville (1965) and Pierrot le Fou (1965) all equally demonstrate the techniques used by Godard and the influence that they had on the films of the French New Wave. 

Bibliography:

1) A Bout de Souffle 1960 

2) Alphaville 1960 

3) Pierrot le Fou 1960 

4) Wiegand, C (2012) French New Wave, Herts AL5 1XJ: Oldcastle Books Ltd, p.56. p.57. p.98. p.102.  

5) Neupert, R (2007) Introduction, Second Edition, A History of the French New Wave Cinema, 1930 Monroe Street Madison The University of Wisconsin Press 

6) The Guardian 6th June 2010 (online) available from https://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/jun/06/film-jean-luc-godard-breathless-feature-philip-french-french-new-wave date accessed 11th October 2018 

7) Night Flight 16th September 2015 (online) available from http://nightflight.com/tonight-on-tcm-jean-luc-godards-dystopian-sci-fi-noir-classic-alphaville/ date accessed 23rd October 2018

8) Discussion Guide for Alphaville Jean-Luc Godard (2015), The Great Books Foundation (online) available from https://www.greatbooks.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Alphaville_guide_final.pdf date accessed 1st November 2018 

9) Nowell-Smith, G (2008) Making Waves, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX, The Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd 

10) The New York Times 21st May 2010 (online) available from https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/23/movies/23scott.html date accessed 8th November 2018 

10) Roger Ebert 10th October 1966 (online) available from https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/pierrot-le-fou-1966 date accessed 10th November 2018 

Contextual Research - Film 3

Pierrot le Fou - Jean-Luc Godard notes

Film Synopsis:It seems to be a gangster picture: Jean-Paul Belmondo leaves his wife and goes to live with his former girlfriend, Anna Karina. She has apparently killed a man. They go on the lam in a stolen car, wind up on a deserted island, play the Robinson Crusoe bit for awhile, and then go back to the mainland to face the music (as Edward G. Robinson might have put it).

"Pierrot Le Fou" marked the beginning of Godard's current period. Before it came the black-and-white films -- cool, quick and austere, with an emphasis on interpersonal relationships. After it came the Godard of color, wide screen and an increasing preoccupation with politics, American culture, violence, Vietnam and movies. (All of Godard's films since "Pierrot le Fou" have essentially been movies about themselves -- a statement hard to explain unless you've seen them).

https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/pierrot-le-fou-1966

"by the time he started shooting Pierrot le fou, the film noir conventions underlying its source novel, Lionel White’s Obsession, on longer interested him. Instead, the rapidly escalating war in Vietnam, the break up of his marriage to Anna Karina, and his own self-doubt concerning the value of what he had achieved, spurred Godard on to new heights of creative originality. He said that, in making Pierrot le fou, he felt as if he were making his ‘first film’; tearing up the old road map and setting out for unknown territory."

"the film now looks like Godard’s fond farewell to the first part of his career, a last madcap romantic escapade before engaging with more serious concerns. It is also a farewell to Karina, and in a way a resigned acknowledgement that they were never meant to be together. Although Marianne betrays Ferdinand there is no malice in her portrayal, and in the final voice-over the suggestion that perhaps they are together in eternity."

http://www.newwavefilm.com/french-new-wave-encyclopedia/pierrot-le-fou.shtml

Contextual Research - Research on Film 1

A Bout de Souffle notes

Film synopsis: A small-time thief steals a car and impulsively murders a motorcycle policeman. Wanted by the authorities, he reunites with a hip American journalism student and attempts to persuade her to run away with him to Italy. 

New wave: change in production, rejecting the practise of studio production and reinventing film form, using real locations and small crews. 

The story of Breathless was originally written by Francois Truffaut and Claude Chabrol and passed on to Godard to adapt and direct. 

Godard wanted to capture real spontaneous moments, he fed actors their lines from behind the camera, speech dubbed - establishes documentary style of filmmaking 

Raoul Coutar (cinematographer) "we tried to film it the way news reports were shot i.e with a handheld camera and natural lighting" - Hollywood adopted this style of documentary film but used it as a tool to make fiction seem more real - highten suspense, gives camera physical presence - audiences point of view.

Godard "I don't think cinema influences youth, we should instead let youth influence cinema" 

Jump cuts make film appear jagged, made cuts to single shots - caused scenes to skip from moment to moment, this is widely used today in popular culture to sustain pace by cutting out pauses or space fillers in videos. 

Audiences are not watching reality but are instead viewing something constructed to resemble reality. 

Abrupt starting and stopping of music throws us out of the film 

Godard heavily influenced by German playwright Bertolt Brecht. Godard: "It's very good to steal things. Bertolt Brecht said art is made from plagiarism" 

Didn't want audiences to be absorbed in the story in a psychological way but rather an intellectual way, questioning what they are seeing 

Godard's role in A Bout de Souffle gives him a physical presence on the plot - Auteur theory 

Estimated budget of 400,000 francs – considerably cheaper than films produced for Hollywood Plot – simplistic – reminiscent of the film noir genre and heavily influenced from American cinema – directors such as Alfred Hitchcock 

Filmed on streets of Paris was cheap and didn't require a permit, dolly shots were created by using a wheelchair 

Breaking the eyeline match in continuity editing, jump cuts – which were previously viewed as amateurish 

Conversations and dialogue are simple, doesn't resemble the structure of normal conversation but rather a collection of thoughts. Sentences are left unanswered and seemingly irrelevant - almost as though characters are just thinking out loud, this creates a feeling of distance and disconnect. 

Camera is a visualisation of the characters

Discontinuity editing 

"Godard emphasises the genius of the director and posits an inseparability of director and camera" - Neupert, A History of the French New Wave Cinema 

Quotes

Patricia: 

"I don't know if I'm unhappy because I'm not free, or if I'm not free because I'm unhappy"

"It's sad to fall asleep. It separates people. Even when you're sleeping together, you're all alone."

"We look each in the other in the eye, and it's no use." 

Michel: 

"I told you being afraid is the worst sin there is." 

"I always get interested in girls who aren't right for me." 

"If you don't like the sea...and the mountains...or the big city...the get stuffed!"

https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0053472/quotes/?tab=qt&ref_=tt_trv_qu

"We are constantly distanced in the manner of Brecht's alienation effect, told that what we are watching is a film, but also that movies, like our lives, are halls of mirrors."

"the camera is handheld, the editing is abrupt and inconsistent, Raoul Coutard's masterly monochrome photography is harsh, hard-edged, reliant on natural light."

Godard's methods of work on Breathless were purposefully chaotic. He admitted that he deliberately created confusion to achieve "a greater possibility of invention".

"He mocked the film business in Le Mépris, subverted the musical in Une Femme est une femme, questioned the very basis of marriage in Une Femme mariée, showed present-day Paris as a horrific, depersonalised city of the future in his bleak sci-fi film Alphaville."

https://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/jun/06/film-jean-luc-godard-breathless-feature-philip-french-french-new-wave

"even if you did not see “Breathless” during its first run at the dawn of the ’60s, surely every frame carries an afterimage of that heady time, just as every jazz note and blast of ambient street noise on the soundtrack brings echoes of an almost mythic moment."

"their drive to reassert the glory of French cinema was grounded in an almost fanatical love of American movies." 

"There is perhaps no episode in all of film history quite as encrusted with contradictory significance as the cresting, in 1959 and 1960, of the Nouvelle Vague. It was a burst of youthful, irreverent energy that was also a decisive engagement in the continuing battle to establish cinema as a serious art form."

"part of the special allure of movies, and “Breathless,” precisely because it so effortlessly, so breathlessly, captures the rhythms of its time and place, erases the distance between the now and then. And yet even as Mr. Godard and his cinematographer, Raoul Coutard, record the sights and sounds of Paris with documentary immediacy, the images are infused with an unmistakable nostalgia."

https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/23/movies/23scott.html